COVID-19 Vaccine Candidates and Abortion-Derived Cell Lines

 Algunas de las vacunas en las que SÍ se utilizan, en algunas de sus fases, líneas celulares de embriones abortados: Sinovac, Altimmum, AstraZeneca, CanSino Biologics, Gamaleya (Sputnik V), Inmunity Bio and NantKwess, Institut Pasteur and Themis and Merk, Janssen Research and Development, Inc., Jhonson y Jhonson, Ru Institute, KU Leven, Merck and IAVI (información no disponible), Shenzen Geno-immune Medical Institute (información no disponible), Vaxart, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Clover Biopharmaceuticals, COVAXX and United Biomedical, Federal Budgetary Research Institution State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vektor” (información no disponible), Instituto Finlay de Vacunas (información no disponible), Medican, Novavax, University of Pittsburgh, Arcturus Therapeutics, Moderna, Inc. with National Institutes of Health, Pfizer and BioNTech, Sanofi Pasteur and Translate Bio, Inovio Pharmaceuticals.

Update: COVID-19 Vaccine Candidates and Abortion-Derived Cell Lines

David Prentice, Ph.D.  |  September 30, 2020.

To view this chart as a PDF, see: COVID-19 Vaccine Candidates and Abortion-Derived Cell Lines

 

Updated March 3, 2021

 

Accurate information about the development and production of COVID-19 vaccines is essential, especially because many proposed candidates use newer molecular technologies for production of a viral vaccine. One concern regarding the ethical assessment of viral vaccine candidates is the potential use of abortion-derived cell lines in the development, production or testing of a vaccine. This analysis utilizes data from the primary scientific literature when available, along with data from clinical trial documents, reputable vaccine tracking websites, and published commercial information.¹ It is the hope that by providing accurate data, recipients can make well-informed decisions regarding vaccine choices.

 

For additional background and guidance, please see:

* A Visual Aid to Viral Infection and Vaccine Production for a visual primer on the various strategies for viral vaccine production.

* COVID-19 Vaccines & Fetal Cell Lines for an infographic description of how fetal cell lines are sometimes used to produce vaccines.

 

Flow Chart for Creation and Testing of Vaccines

Design & Development: conceptualization, preparatory experiments, and specification for how vaccine will be constructed and produced. Production: process used to manufacture final vaccine to be given to people.   Confirmatory Lab Tests on Product: tests to analyze quality, nucleic acid or protein sequence, protein conformation, antibody reactivity, etc. of final vaccine product.   Vaccination: giving final produced vaccine to people.

 

 

 

Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) Vaccine Candidates Last Updated 3 March 2021					🟩 DOES NOT USE abortion-derived cell line     🔺 DOES USE abortion-derived cell line     🟩🔺 SOME tests DO NOT use abortion-derived cells, SOME DO.   � Currently undetermined
Sponsor(s)1	Country	Strategy2	Clinical Trial Status3	Public Funding4	Design & Development	Production	Confirm-atory Lab Tests
WHOLE VIRUS VACCINE – LIVE ATTENUATED or INACTIVATED
Beijing Institute of Biological Products/ Sinopharm	China	Inactivated virus “BBIBP-CorV” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (2 weeks apart)	Early approval in China Phase 3 Phase 3		🟩 Vero monkey cells	🟩 Vero monkey cells	🟩 Cytopathic test
Wuhan Institute of Biological Products/ Sinopharm	China	Inactivated virus “New Crown COVID-19” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (2 weeks apart)	Phase 3 Phase 3 Phase 3 Early approval in China Phase 1/2		🟩 Vero monkey cells Xia et al., JAMA 324, 951, 13Aug2020	🟩 Vero monkey cells Xia et al., JAMA 324, 951, 13Aug2020	🟩 Plaque reduction neutralization test Vero monkey cells Xia et al., JAMA 324, 951, 13Aug2020
Bharat Biotech/Indian Council of Medical Research	India	Inactivated virus “BBV152” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (2 weeks apart)	India EUA granted Phase 3 Phase 3 Phase 1/2 Phase 1/2 Phase 1/2		🟩 Vero monkey cells Yadav et al., ResearchSquare 10Sept2020	🟩 Vero monkey cells Yadav et al., ResearchSquare 10Sept2020	🟩 Antibody ELISA Plaque reduction Vero monkey cellsYadav et al., ResearchSquare 10Sept2020
Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences	China	Inactivated virus “SARS-CoV-2 vaccine”” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (2 weeks apart)	Phase 3 Phase 1/2 Phase 1/2		🟩 Vero monkey cells Pu et al., medRxiv, 6Oct2020	🟩 Vero monkey cells Pu et al., medRxiv, 6Oct2020	🟩 Antibody ELISA Neutralizing antibody cytopathic effect Vero monkey cells Pu et al., medRxiv, 6Oct2020 Supplement
John Paul II Medical Research Institute	USA	Live attenuated virus	Pre-clinical		🟩 Ethical cell lines as a matter of policy	🟩 Perinatal human cells (term umbilical cord and placental)	�
Research Institute for Biological Safety Problems	Kazakhstan	Inactivated virus “QazCovid-in” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart)	Phase 3 Phase 1/2		�	�	�
Sinovac Biotech Co., Ltd.	China	Inactivated virus “CoronaVac” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (2 weeks apart)	China granted conditional marketing authorization 8Feb2021 Chile, Brazil, Turkey, Indonesia EUA granted Phase 3 Early approval in China Phase 3 Phase 1/2 Phase 1/2 Phase 1/2		🟩 Vero monkey cells	🟩 Vero monkey cells Gao et al., Science 369, 77, 3July2020	🟩🔺 protein test HEK293 cells Supplement Gao et al., Science 369, 77, 3July2020
Valneva and Dynavax	France USA UK	Inactivated Virus “VLA2001” plus adjuvant CpG1018 Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart)	Phase 1/2		🟩 Vero monkey cells	🟩 Vero monkey cells Same platform as IXIARO, Valneva press release, 22April2020	�
VIRAL VECTOR-BASED VACCINE
Altimmune	USA	Replication-deficient Adenovirus vector “AdCOVID” Given: Intranasal 1-2 doses	Phase 1/2		🔺 PER.C6 cells	🔺 PER.C6 cells Same platform as NasoVAX NasoVAX uses PER.C6 Licensed PER.C6 from Janssen	🔺
AstraZeneca University of Oxford	USA UK	Replication-deficient Adenovirus vector “AZD1222” “ChAdOX1nCoV-19” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (4 weeks apart)	UK EUA granted India EUA granted Phase 3 Phase 3 Phase 3 Phase 3 Phase 2/3 Phase 2/3 Phase 1/2 Phase 1/2	Operation Warp Speed HHS-BARDA $1.2 Billion CEPI up to $384 Million	🔺 HEK293 cells	🔺 HEK293 cells van Doremalen et al., Nature, 30July2020	🔺 HEK293 cellsvan Doremalen et al., Nature, 30July2020 MRC-5 cells Almuqrin et al., ResearchSquare 20Oct2020
CanSino Biologics, Inc. Beijing Institute of Biotechnology, Academy of Military Medical Sciences, PLA of China	China	Replication-deficient Adenovirus vector “Ad5-nCoV” Given: Intramuscular 1 dose	Phase 3 Phase 3 Phase 2 Phase 2 Phase 2 Phase 1 Phase 1		🔺 HEK293 cells	🔺 HEK293 cells Biospace, 12May2020	🔺
Gamaleya Research Institute	Russia	Replication-deficient Adenovirus vectors (rAd26-S+rAd5-S) “Gam-COVID-Vac” “Sputnik V” Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart)	Phase 3 Phase 3 EUA in 30 countries as of Feb2021 Early approval in Russia August 2020 Phase 1/2 Phase 1/2		🔺 HEK293 cells	🔺 HEK293 cells Gamaleya has not published details on this vaccine, but has posted information on use of cell lines for their other adenoviral vaccines	🔺
ImmunityBio and NantKwest	USA	Replication-deficient Adenovirus vector recombinant “hAd5 S-Fusion + N-ETSD” Given: Subcutaneous	Phase 1 Phase 1 Phase 1		🔺 E.C7 cells (derivative of HEK293 cells) Rice et al., bioRxiv 30July2020	🔺 E.C7 cells (derivative of HEK293 cells) Rice et al., bioRxiv 30July2020	🔺 Protein and antibody tests HEK293T cells Rice et al., bioRxiv 30July2020 Seiling et al., medRxiv 6Nov2020
Institut Pasteur and Themis and Merck	USA France	Replication-competent recombinant measles virus “TMV-083” Given: Intramuscular	Development Discontinued Phase 1/2 Phase 1	CEPI up to $4.9 Million	🔺HEK293T Development and rescue of recombinant measles virus Hörner et al., PNAS 22Dec2020 Hörner et al. Supplement “SARS-CoV-2 S-encoding vaccine candidates… were generated as described previously”	🟩 Vero monkey cells Hörner et al., PNAS 22Dec2020 Hörner et al. Supplement	🟩🔺 Lentiviral vectors for antigenic DCFusogenic testHEK293TFusogenic testS protein expressionVero monkey cellsHörner et al., PNAS 22Dec2020 Hörner et al. Supplement
Israel Institute for Biological Research (IIBR)	Israel	Replication-competent recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (VSVΔG) “IIBR-100” Given: Intramuscular1 dose	Phase 1/2		🟩 BHK hamster cells Vero monkey cells Yahalom-Ronen et al., bioRxiv 19June2020	🟩 Vero monkey cells Yahalom-Ronen et al., bioRxiv 19June2020	🟩 Plaque reduction; immunofluorescence Vero monkey cells Yahalom-Ronen et al., bioRxiv 19June2020
Janssen Research & Development, Inc. Johnson & Johnson	USA	Replication-deficient Adenovirus vector “Ad26.COV2-S” Given: Intramuscular 1 dose (some trials use 2 doses, 8 weeks apart)	FDA Emergency Use Authorization Approved Phase 3 Phase 3 Phase 1/2	Operation Warp Speed HHS-BARDA $1,457,887,081 total	🔺 PER.C6 cells	🔺 PER.C6 cells Tostanoski et al., Nature Medicine, 3Sept2020; J&J, 30March2020; Janssen Vaccine Technologies	🔺
Rega Institute, KU Leuven	Belgium	Replication-competent attenuated yellow fever vaccine (YF17D) vector “YF-S0” Given: Intramuscular 1 dose	Pre-clinical		🟩 BHK-21J hamster cells Sanchez-Felipe et al., Nature, 1Dec2020	🟩 BHK-21J hamster cells Sanchez-Felipe et al., Nature, 1Dec2020	🟩🔺 Antibody titer Pseudovirus HEK293T cells Immunoblot BHK-21J hamster cells Sanchez-Felipe et al., Nature, 1Dec2020
Merck and IAVI	USA	Replication-competent recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (VSVΔG) “V590” Given: Intramuscular	Development Discontinued Phase 1	Operation Warp Speed HHS-BARDA $38,033,570	🟩 Vero monkey cells	🟩 Vero monkey cells Use rVSV Ervebo platform Ervebo uses Vero cell culture-11 Description	�
Shenzhen Geno-immune Medical Institute	China	Lentivirus minigenes + Adult human APC (antigen-presenting cells)	Phase 1		�	🟩	�
Shenzhen Geno-immune Medical Institute	China	Lentivirus minigenes + Adult human CD/T cells (dendritic cells and T cells) “LV-SMENP-DC”	Phase 1/2		�	🟩	�
Vaxart	USA	Replication-deficient Adenovirus vector “VXA-CoV2-1” plus dsRNA adjuvant Given: Oral	Phase 1		🔺 HEK293 cells	🔺 HEK293 cells Moore et al., bioRxiv 6Sept2020	🔺
PROTEIN-BASED VACCINE
Anhui Zhifei Longcom Biopharmaceutical/Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences	China	Protein vaccine Recombinant RBD dimer plus adjuvant Given: Intramuscular 2 or 3 doses (30 days apart)	Phase 3 Phase 2 Phase 1/2 Phase 1		🔺 HEK293T cells Dai et al., Cell 6Aug2020	🟩 CHO hamster cells Dai et al., Cell 6Aug2020	🔺 Pseudovirus HEK293T cells Dai et al., Cell 6Aug2020
Clover Biopharmaceuticals, Inc.	China	Protein vaccine “SCB-2019” plus adjuvant CpG 1018 Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart)	Phase 2/3 Phase 1	CEPI up to $69.5 Million	🟩cDNA in expression vector; transfect CHO hamster cells Liang et al., bioRxiv, 24Sept2020 Trimer-Tag system; Liu et al., Scientific Reports 2017	🟩 CHO hamster cells Trimer-Tag system; Liu et al., Scientific Reports 2017	🟩🔺 PseudovirusHEK293 cellsRef’d: Nie et al., Emerging Microbes & Infections 24Mar2020Cytopathic effectVero monkey cellsLiang et al., bioRxiv, 24Sept2020
COVAXX and United Biomedical	USA Taiwan	Protein vaccine “UB-612” S1-RBD-protein; Multitope Peptide-Based Vaccine (MVP) Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (4 weeks apart)	Phase 2/3 Phase 1		🟩cDNA in expression vector; transfect CHO hamster cells Guirakhoo et al., bioRxiv, 30Nov2020	🟩 CHO hamster cells Guirakhoo et al., bioRxiv, 30Nov2020	🟩🔺 Antibody blocked binding to hACE2 HEK293 Guirakhoo et al., bioRxiv, 30Nov2020
Federal Budgetary Research Institution State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vektor”	Russia	Protein vaccine “EpiVacCorona” chemically synthesized peptide antigens of SARS-CoV-2, conjugated to a carrier protein adsorbed on an aluminum-containing adjuvant Given: Intramuscular2 doses (3 weeks apart)	Early approval in Russia Oct 2020 Phase 1/2		�	🟩 chemically synthesized peptide antigens	�
Instituto Finlay de Vacunas	Cuba	Protein vaccine “”Finlay-FR-1” Receptor-binding domain (RBD) SARS-CoV-2 spike + adjuvant Given: Intramuscular2 doses (4 weeks apart)	Phase 1/2 Phase 1		� RBD produced in mammalian cells Garcia-Rivera, MEDICC Review, 30Oct2020	� RBD produced in mammalian cells Garcia-Rivera, MEDICC Review, 30Oct2020	�
Instituto Finlay de Vacunas	Cuba	Protein vaccine “Finlay-FR-2” Receptor-binding domain (RBD) SARS-CoV-2 spike chemically bound tetanus toxoid + adjuvant Given: Intramuscular2 doses (4 weeks apart)	Phase 2 Phase 1		� RBD produced in mammalian cells Garcia-Rivera, MEDICC Review, 30Oct2020	� RBD produced in mammalian cells Garcia-Rivera, MEDICC Review, 30Oct2020	�
John Paul II Medical Research Institute	USA	Recombinant Protein Perinatal human cells (term umbilical cord and placental)	Pre-clinical		🟩 Ethical cell lines as a matter of policy	🟩 Perinatal human cells (term umbilical cord and placental)	�
Kentucky BioProcessing, Inc. (British American Tobacco)	USA	Protein vaccine “KBP-201” Plant-expressed RBD Given: Intramuscular2 doses (3 weeks apart)	Phase 1/2		🟩 Recombinant DNA sequence for RBD of SARS-CoV-2	🟩 Plant expression of RBD peptide	�
Medicago	Canada	Protein on Virus-Like Particle “CoVLP” Plant-expressed spike protein particle with adjuvant, CpG1018 or AS03 Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart)	Phase 2/3 Phase 2 Phase 1		🟩 Recombinant DNA sequence in Agrobacterium, transformation of plant cells	🟩 Plant expression of protein and VLP Ward et al., medRxiv 6Nov2020	🟩🔺 Pseudovirus HEK293 cells Ward et al., medRxiv 6Nov2020
Novavax	USA	Protein vaccine “NVX-CoV2373” Baculovirus expression plus Matrix M adjuvant Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart)	Phase 3 Phase 3 Phase 2 Phase 1	Operation Warp Speed HHS-BARDA $1,600,434,523 CEPI up to $388 Million	🟩	🟩 Sf9 insect cells Bangaru et al., Science, 27Nov2020 Bangaru et al., Supplement Bangaru et al., bioRxiv preprint, 6Aug2020; Graphical view	🟩🔺 Pseudovirus HEK293 cells Bangaru et al., Science, 27Nov2020 Bangaru et al., Supplement Bangaru et al., bioRxiv preprint, 6Aug2020
Sanofi and GSK Protein Sciences	USA France	Protein vaccine Baculovirus expression plus AS03 adjuvant Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart)	Phase 2 Phase 1/2	Operation Warp Speed HHS-BARDA $2,072,775,336 total	🟩	🟩 Sf9 insect cells Baculovirus expressed recombinant protein ;	�
Sorrento	USA	Protein vaccine “T-VIVA-19” SARS-Cov-2 spike protein S1 domain fused with human IgG-Fc Given: Intramuscular	Pre-clinical		🟩	🟩 CHO cells Herrmann et al., bioRxiv preprint, 30June2020	🟩 Antibody ELISA; Neutralization assays Vero monkey cells Herrmann et al., bioRxiv preprint, 30June2020
Sorrento	USA	Protein vaccine “STI-6991” SARS-Cov-2 spike protein expressed on K562 cells	Pre-clinical		�	🟩 K562 cells Concept: Ji et al., Medicine in Drug Discovery March2020	�
University of Pittsburgh	USA	Protein vaccine Adenovirus-expressed recombinant proteins “PittCoVacc” Given: Microneedle arrays	Pre-clinical		🔺 HEK293 cells	🔺 HEK293 cells Kim et al., EBioMedicine , 2April2020	🔺
University of Queensland and CSL Ltd.	Australia	Protein vaccine “V451” Recombinant protein with proprietary molecular clamp Given: Intramuscular	HALTED Phase 1 Phase 1 Phase 1	CEPI up to $4.5 Million	🟩	🟩 expiCHO hamster cells	�
RNA VACCINE
Arcturus Therapeutics	USA	mRNA vaccine self-transcribing, replicating “LUNAR-CoV19” (“ARCT-021”) in vitro transcription reaction with T7 RNA polymerase from STARR plasmid template LUNAR proprietary lipid nanoparticle encapsulated Given: Intramuscular 1 dose	Phase 2 Phase 2   Phase 1/2		🟩 Sequence designed on computer	🟩 No cells used de Alwis et al., bioRxiv 3Sept2020	🟩🔺 protein test HEK293 de Alwis et al., bioRxiv 3Sept2020
CureVac	Germany	mRNA vaccine non-replicating “CVnCoV” in vitro transcription lipid nanoparticle encapsulated Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (4 weeks apart)	Phase 3 Phase 2/3 Phase 2 Phase 1	CEPI up to $15.3 Million	🟩 Sequence designed on computer	🟩 No cells used Rauch et al., bioRxiv 9Feb2021	🟩 Protein test Reticulocyte lysate, HeLa cells Rauch et al., bioRxiv 9Feb2021
Moderna, Inc. with National Institutes of Health	USA	mRNA vaccine non-replicating “mRNA-1273” T7 RNA polymerase-mediated transcription from DNA plasmid template LNP (lipid nanoparticle) encapsulated Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (4 weeks apart)	FDA Emergency Use Authorization Approved Phase 3 Phase 2 Phase 1	Operation Warp Speed HHS-BARDA $2,479,894,979 total CEPI up to $1 Million	🟩 Sequence designed on computer	🟩 No cells used Corbett et al., Nature , 5Aug2020	🟩🔺 protein test & pseudovirus HEK293 cells Corbett et al., Nature , 5Aug2020
Pfizer and BioNTech	USA Germany	mRNA vaccine non-replicating “BNT-162a1,b1,b2,b3,c2” nucleoside-modified mRNA in vitro transcribed by T7 polymerase from a plasmid DNA template LNP (lipid nanoparticle) encapsulated Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (3 weeks apart)	FDA Emergency Use Authorization Approved UK EUA granted Phase 2/3 Phase 1/2 Phase 1/2 Phase 1 Phase 1	Operation Warp Speed HHS-BARDA $1.95 Billion	🟩 Sequence designed on computer	🟩 No cells used Vogel et al., bioRxiv 8Sept2020	🟩🔺 protein test & pseudovirus HEK293 cells Vogel et al., bioRxiv 8Sept2020
Providence Therapeutics	Canada	mRNA vaccine “PTX-COVID19-B” Synthesized mRNA LNP (lipid nanoparticle) encapsulated Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (4 weeks apart)	Phase 1		�	🟩 No cells used Cision, 5Aug2020 Providence Therapeutics	�
Sanofi Pasteur and Translate Bio	USA France	mRNA vaccine non-replicating “MRT5500” synthesized by in vitro transcription employing RNA polymerase with a plasmid DNA template LNP (lipid nanoparticle) encapsulated Given: Intramuscular	Pre-clinical		🟩 Sequence designed on computer	🟩 No cells used Kalnin et al., bioRxiv 14Oct2020 mRNA production in the lab ; Translate Bio scientific platform	🟩🔺 protein test & pseudovirus HEK293 cells Kalnin et al., bioRxiv 14Oct2020
DNA VACCINE
Genexine	Korea	DNA vaccine “GX-19” DNA synthesized in vitro, placed in plasmid vector Given: Intramuscular and Electroporation 2 doses (4 weeks apart)	Phase 1/2 Phase 1/2		🟩 Sequence designed on computer	🟩 No cells used Seo et al., bioRxiv 10Oct2020	�
Inovio Pharmaceuticals	USA	DNA vaccine “INO-4800” DNA synthesized in vitro, placed in plasmid vector Given: Intradermal Electroporation 2 doses (4 weeks apart)	Phase 2/3 Phase 2 Phase 1/2 Phase 1	Operation Warp Speed CEPI up to $22.5 Million	🟩 Sequence designed on computer	🟩 No cells used Smith et al., Nature 20May2020	🟩🔺 protein test & pseudovirus HEK293 cells Smith et al., Nature 20May2020
Osaka University, AnGes, Takara Bio	Japan	DNA vaccine “AG0301-COVID19” “AG0302-COVID19” Chemically synthesized plasmid vector grown in E. coli Pressure injector Given: Intramuscular 2 doses (2 weeks apart)	Phase 2/3 Phase 1/2 Phase 1/2		🟩 Sequence designed on computer	🟩 No cells used E. coli</em Nishikawa et al., bioRxiv, 14Jan2021	🟩 Virus neutralization Vero E6 cells monkey cells Nishikawa et al., bioRxiv, 14Jan2021
Symvivo Corporation	Canada	DNA vaccine “bacTRL-spike” Genetically engineered Bifidobacterium longum Given: Oral, bacteria bind to gut lining 1 dose	Phase 1		�	🟩 No cells used	�
Zydus Cadila	India	DNA vaccine “ZyCov-D” Chemically synthesized plasmid vector grown in E. coli Given: Intramuscular 3 doses (4 weeks apart)	Phase 3 Phase 1/2		🟩 Sequence designed on computer	🟩 No eukaryotic cells used E. coli</em Dey et al., bioRxiv, 26Jan2021	🟩 Expression analysis Plaque reduction Vero cells monkey cells Dey et al., bioRxiv, 26Jan2021 Yadav et al., bioRxiv, 3Feb2021

 

1. Data accumulated from primary literature as referenced in the Chart; AND “COVID-19 Treatment and Vaccine Tracker,” Milken Institute, https://covid-19tracker.milkeninstitute.org/ ; AND “Draft landscape of COVID-19 candidate vaccines,” World Health Organization (WHO), https://www.who.int/publications/m/item/draft-landscape-of-covid-19-candidate-vaccines
   NOTE that patents are not considered because they are unreliable sources; even the most relevant patents are prospective documents that provide examples of potential use, but do not provide information about actual, current application of an invention or technology.
2. Prentice, DA and Sander Lee, T. June 15, 2020. A Visual Aid to Viral Infection and Vaccine Production. On Science Series 1. Accessed 19 June 2020 at: https://lozierinstitute.org/a-visual-aid-to-viral-infection-and-vaccine-production/
3. Phases of Clinical Trials: Pre-clinical- laboratory and animal studies; Phase I- 10-100 people, study safety and dosage; Phase II- tens to hundreds of people, study efficacy, dosage, side effects; Phase III- hundreds to thousands of people, study efficacy and adverse reactions.
4. HHS-BARDA = U.S. Health and Human Services-Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority; CEPI = Coalition of Epidemic Preparedness Innovations; BARDA’s rapidly-expanding COVID-19 medical countermeasure portfolio. Accessed 29 Sept 2020 at https://www.medicalcountermeasures.gov/app/barda/coronavirus/COVID19.aspx; CEPI’s COVID-19 Vaccine Portfolio, Accessed 29 Sept 2020 at https://cepi.net/COVAX/